Sigmund Freud Biography

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Sigmund Freud was the man behind the concept and method of psychoanalysis, which was a means of delving into a person's inner conflicts that lie within the unconscious mind. This method is based on the understanding that people's fantasies and dreams say something about these problems that affect them in their daily lives. Freud also formed several theories that relate to the ego, libido and sexuality of the child, which are only a few of the other topics he studied and specialized on during his lifetime. Hence, Freud was regarded as one of the most influential and controversial personalities of the 20th century.

Background

Sigmund Freud lived most of his years in Vienna, although Freiberg (a town in Austria) was his birthplace. When his family relocated to Vienna, Freud was only four years of age. It was in this city in Austria where he received a degree in the field of medicine, which was in 1881. A year after, he married and decided to practice his profession for a living. His main focus was on treating patients who suffered from psychological disorders, and this started his journey and preoccupation on studying human experience and instincts. He also worked with other scientists and scholars throughout his life, although he eventually formulated his own theories and developed a method for the treatment of psychological conditions among individuals.

Works

Immediately after obtaining a medical degree at the University of Vienna, Sigmund Freud decided to work as a physician. He later expanded his knowledge by studying the works of Jean-Martin Charcot, who was a French neurologist. It was during this time that Freud developed an interest in the treatment of hysteria, which is an emotional disorder. Afterwards, Josef Breuer, one of Freud's mentors, introduced him to one patient's case study. The patient's name was Bertha Pappenheim, although she was simply known as "Anna O.". The patient suffered from various symptoms including paralysis, tactile anesthesia and a nervous cough. The two scientists discovered that Anna suffered from various traumatic experiences, which they believed had a significant contribution to her mental illness.

Breuer and Freud encouraged the patient to talk freely about her symptoms and experiences. Since there was no known specific cause for Anna's difficulties, they simply allowed her to express her feelings and thoughts through talking. In 1895, the Studies on Hysteria was published, which was the outcome of their analysis on the improvement on Anna's condition by implementing the so-called "talking cure".

Freud explored deeper into the human mind and sexuality, and this allowed him to publish several works including Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality and The Interpretation of Dreams. Both of these written works by Freud became known worldwide, but his study of the psychosexual stages left a more lasting impact on critics and scholars alike. His theory was also met with much controversy and skepticism, yet this has a massive influence on the field of psychology up to this modern era.

Contributions

Sigmund Freud mainly worked on formulating theories that impact the human mind, mental disorders and sexuality. His works provided a deeper understanding on abnormal and clinical psychology, as well as the stages of human development. Some of his scholarly publications included The Ego and the Id, Moses and Monotheism, Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, Studies on Hysteria, Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria, Civilization and Its Discontents, and The Interpretation of Dreams. He believed that mental disorders were rooted to cultural differences aside from physiological causes, as presented in his case studies.

Although Freud initially worked with Breuer, the two parted ways because the latter believed that much of Freud's preoccupations were on the sexual origins of neuroses. They were unable to settle the differences in their viewpoints, and this triggered Freud to go deeper into his study. He also published his work "The Interpretation of Dreams", and he maintained the belief that a person's dreams reveal so much about the inner conflicts within. While he may have refined his theories and gained popularity with his publications, his contemporaries agreed on the assumption that Freud was more focused on sexuality as one of the topics of his studies. Nevertheless, Freud's fame increased worldwide as he received numerous invitations to deliver lectures in various parts of the United States, beginning 1909.

Legacies

Sigmund Freud admitted that he had gone through conflicts within himself, which started during his early years. His father's death had an impact on him, and he went through feelings of guilt and shame, as well. He recalled how he viewed his father as his rival to the love and affection of his mother, which caused him to develop negative emotions. He reflected on this experience he had as a child and used it as one of his basis and inspiration in developing the theory on infantile sexuality and the concept of Oedipus Complex.

There were several theories that Freud established, which are still recognized even up to this day. He also inspired several scholars and scientists during his time. For instance, Charles Darwin's theory on the evolution of man had some fascinating links to the study of Freud on human behavior. Then, there was this scientific theory by Helmholtz, which referred to energy and its constant quality in any physical system. This was related to Freud's analysis of the structural components of the human mind. Thus, the theories and scientific works of Freud may have been criticized and praised at the same time by his contemporaries, yet these are evidences of his strong influence in the field of psychology.

Sigmund Freud battled with a serious illness during the last years of his life. He developed oral cancer, which caused him to struggle physically and emotionally. In 1939, while he was living in exile in England, he requested from his doctor a lethal dose of the drug morphine to end his sufferings. This resulted to the death of this controversial and influential scientist whose works remain with us until this very day.

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Studies On Hysteria was a joint publication by Doctor Sigmund Freud and Breuer. Breuer had a great influence on Freud's work, but they later parted ways after a difference in opinion. This book gives exceptional insight in methods used to treat mental century, specifically hysteria. At the time this work was authored, hysteria was a general term, which encompassed a wide array of mental illnesses. He (Freud) held that the belief that the cause of hysteria was not physiological but originated form deep within the mind. He also believed that in most cases, this hysteria was related to some of sexual incident in the patient's life. Consequently, he proposed that in such cases, manipulation of the patient's genitalia causing sexual arousal should form part of the treatment. In addition, the work details Freud and Breuer's development of the talking cure.

The first section of the book deals in detail with the discovery that the cure for hysteria could have been found within the patient's mind. The two authors postulate that the incident responsible for the condition was to be found in the patient's mind. However, it requires a professional psychoanalyst to bring such a memory to the fore of the patient's mind. Freud and his colleague observed that the symptoms were presented uniquely in each patient. For instance, they noted that the trigger for each incident of hysteria varied from patient to patient. Thus, they concluded that a unique incident in each individual was causing the hysteria. However, this incident had been repressed in the patient's subconscious. The authors noted that once the incident was brought to the patient's consciousness, all symptoms of the illness immediately disappeared.

In order to bring such an incident to the fore, a psychoanalyst had to use hypnosis. The hypnosis would consequently bring the incident to the fore. Consequently, the patient recalled the incident and was thus essentially able to treat himself or herself. By bringing it into the conscious mind, the doctor could by suggestion cause the event to cease from existing in the patient's mind.

The second section of the book begins with case studies to demonstrate what was stated in the first part. The first case study involves a patient of Breuer named Anna O. In this, the author demonstrates how amnesia and hysteria relate. Thus, they successfully demonstrated that there was another part of the mind, the unconscious mind, which exerted great control on an individual's everyday life. In order to access this unconscious mind, the psychoanalyst utilized the method of hypnosis. The psychoanalyst would get the patient to say whatever they felt was on their mind. Meanwhile, the doctor would sit quietly without interrupting the patient's seemingly mumble talk. When the patient was done with talking, the doctor would critically analyze what the patient just said to them.

However, in the presentation of these case studies it is important to note that hypnosis did not always work. Consequently, Freud began to doubt the effectiveness of this type of treatment. This would be one of the causes of his disagreement with Breuer and they would later part ways. However, throughout his career, Freud remained highly critical of hypnosis, dismissing it as being highly ineffective. In fact, in one of the case studies a patient named Miss Lucy R. was analyzed while fully conscious. This is because he was unable to hypnotize this patient. This only served to strengthen his belief in how ineffective hypnosis was. The case study of Katharina made Freud believe in most cases of hysteria having an origin in sexual trauma. The final case study presented was that of Fraulein Elisabeth von R. At the time, it was believed that she was suffering from a form of hysteria. However, this would today be diagnosed as a psychosomatic condition. The patient had lost use of both her legs in what was seen as a form pf paralysis. This was despite the fact that there was nothing physically wrong with her. In the book, the authors state that the patient had expressed her mental trauma in her legs. By allowing the patient's mind to recall the traumatic incident, the patient would regain the use of her legs.

The final part ends in a more detailed analysis of ideas presented in the opening first section. Freud and Breuer differed greatly with opinions of the time that hysteria had some origin in physiological causes. They thus stated that the mind was more complex than previously thought. They also discussed the importance of the subconscious mind in everyday life. In addition, the authors gave detailed in-depth look into how exactly mental trauma works. At the time, nobody had really bothered to check how various events in the past could manifest in the present. In addition, the authors note that the unconscious was adept to using symbolism when it needed to express themselves. For instance, they noted that a traumatizing event in a patient's life could manifest itself symbolically in the patient as sore through or something else.

This work undoubtedly lay the foundation of how mental illnesses are treated today. Indeed, it lay the foundation on which modern psychology is based today. Besides that, it was quite useful in revealing the mysteries of the unconscious. Before this work, nobody had bothered to give a detailed analysis of the unconscious mind. However, Freud and Breuer would later disagree on some fundamental issues. Firstly, Freud was completely against the use of hypnosis. He did not believe it had a role to play in the future of psychoanalysis. Secondly, Breuer disagreed with Freud on the role sexuality of individuals played in their mental development. While most doctors involved in treating mental illness did not see it as having a role, Freud would base most of his theories on it. This was especially outrageous, considering that all manner of sexual innuendo was considered taboo during his time. However, he saw as one of the causes why so many women of the time were suffering from hysteria. This work gives some fascinating insight into the working of the human mind.

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Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality is a 1905 work by Sigmund Freud which advanced his theory of sexuality, in particular its relation to childhood. Freud considered these essays to be his second greatest work. His most important work, according to him was The Interpretation of Dreams.Freud began developing these theories after working with female patients. Most of these patients were loosely diagnosed to suffer from hysteria. The symptoms for this term were quite varied. For instance, symptoms as paralysis or insomnia were diagnosed to be hysteria. It also included psychotic instances and wild mood swings. Interestingly, one of the common ways of treating it was for a doctor to cause the patient to have an orgasm. This may have had a great influence on Sigmund Freud's work.

Sigmund Freud was mentored by Jean-Martin Charcot, a renowned Psychiatrist of his time. He was the first to use hypnosis in treating patients that were diagnosed with hysteria. However, Freud abandoned the practice later in his career, finding it to be ineffective. Freud's own success came from dealing with patients who had psychosomatic illnesses. He theorized that the symptoms, which these patients were experiencing, were due to repression of sexual desires. Consequently, Freud postulated that treatment of these symptoms was by bringing these suppressed desired into the conscious mind.

Freud's work has generated a lot of controversy, especially among feminist groups. They view Freud's work as a sexist. However, newer theories into human sexuality are still based on the original Freudian theories. These opponents are particularly offended by the use of the term "normal". They argue that normal is subjective and thus Freud's work is flawed. Freud did also observe that people with "normal" sexual tendencies were not normal afterall. He claimed that there was no normal sexual behavior. On the issue of pedophiles, Freud had an interesting observation. He characterized such perverse feelings as originating form fear. For instance, animals, which were unable to mate successfully with others, would take their frustrations out on young ones. Thus, he observed that pedophilia was not innate but rather grew out of fear.


Despite the major flaws, Freud does make a number of important points. This work was based on famous sexologists of his time. He read their theories and observed their work before coming up with his own theory. The first part of this work is dedicated to studying sexual behaviors that were not "normal". In his work, Freud observed a number of different sexual orientations, which he had observed such as homosexuality and bisexual tendencies. Freud observed that some of this individuals have always had this attraction since birth while others developed this "condition" after a certain trigger.

Sigmund Freud was the first to give detailed description of how children experienced sexual pleasure. He described that children experience pleasure through mechanical processes such as being flung in the air. He claimed that the sense of fear they experience followed by a sense of calmness was an intense source of sexual pleasure. In his work, Freud also suggested that children had specific erogenous zones through which they would experience sexual pleasure. For instance, the act of a child sorrying on their thumb was for sexual pleasure. He also postulated the anal area could be converted into an area of sexual pleasure where the child experiences pleasure by exerting pressure.

On his explanations on the stages of sexual development in children, Freud claimed the first stage was borne out of curiosity. A young boy will wonder why they are built different from girls. He also suggested that girls on discovering they do not have a penis develop what he termed as "sexual envy". Freud suggested that this early developments in the child of a life had a great influence on them later on in life. He suggested boys would develop a fear for their father and thus try to mimic him in an attempt to appease him. This fear was the fear of castration. According to Freud this fear came out of sexual desire for his mother. He also postulates he discovery of the penis to be the origin of misogyny. Freud suggested that when the boy made the discovery that the opposite sex lacks a penis, he would henceforth look down on the as lesser men. Freud suggested that later on, this feeling would disappear but re-emerge later in puberty. At this stage, the person's sexual desire and relationships would be staged by the early stages of development. One of his wildest claims was that the desire for intellectualism was driven by sexual desires.

The essays also do briefly touch on sadomasochism. He explained that the drive men had to be aggressive was rooted in more than a desire to mate. He postulated that men were driven by the dire to completely dominate the female in every way. He also observed that this trait was common in most men. However, it existed in varying degrees among different men.


The original Freud theories have been revised over the course of more than a hundred years. Although most of his work has been disproved. He did make some very progressive a point for a man of his time. For instance, he gave an explanation to what were seen as perverse sexual nature of people at the time. In essence, Freud was challenging the long held notion that all sexual desire came from a biological desire to mate. Here in lies the contradictory nature of Freud's work. Although he clearly described sexuality developing independently from a desire to mate, he still viewed it as perverse. Freud also viewed sexuality as fluid and not fixed, thus it developed over the course of an individual's life.

From the aforementioned summary, it is quite clear that Sigmund Freud was obsessed by development of human beings as rooted in sexuality. However, his work does raise some interest. For instance, Freud's attributes the rise of monotheism and the strong hold it had at the time to psychosexual development. In addition, Freud attributed the ease with which strongmen in most states at the time ruled with absolute authority to development of human sexuality. His work was controversial during his time and still is even today. However, Freud's contribution to modern psychoanalysis is not in doubt.

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Considered the father of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud wrote the book The Interpretation of Dreams towards the end of the nineteenth century. Although his theory on dreams, presented extensively in this work has been the subject of relentless criticism, there is no denying the influence he had on much of the twentieth century. In the works, Freud postulates that dreams are a way through which the mind tries to stay awake after the person has gone to sleep. He goes so far as to classify the different types of dreams.

He uses a self-analysis of his own dreams in order to prove the theory he puts forward about how dream psychology works. In the work, Freud differentiates between dreams that are at the surface and unconscious level dreams. He suggests that dreams have their own language and thus need to be interpreted. He suggests that most dreams are a sort of way for the unconscious mind to express its desires. He continues to explain that even the most distorted of dreams, when carefully examined will reveal their meaning. Thus, he proposes that one way of gaining insights into a person's desires is through an analysis of their dreams, no matter how far-fetched they are.

Freud began his work by exploring past literature which had been written on this subject of the dream world. Indeed, there were many theories that had been written on the subject. However, he noted that the interest in dreams over the issue for more than a thousand years had not yielded much. Initially, early man believed that dreams were some sort of divine message form the gods. He also notes that recent scientific theory of his time indicated that dreams originated from excitation of the senses. In other words, it was a way for the sleeping mind to deal with the real world. This was done in an effort to keep the individual from waking up.

However, he was not wholly convinced about this theory of excitation of the senses. For instance, he wondered why a dream did not simply recount the event of the day in a simple manner as they had occurred. In addition, he noted that the theory of physical excitation did not always hold. In fact, the mind would sometimes block out all sensory stimuli. Besides this, he also noted that many dreams people recounted had an ethical angle to them. Consequently, he concluded there was no way dreaming could be that simplistic. His interest in dreams during his practice with mental patients. During their sessions, they would describe to him horrific nightmares. On further investigation, he noted a pattern in this dreams. Thus, he decided to investigate the matter. He noted that when treating the mind, a dream should be regarded as a symptom just like other ailments. When he finally decided to write this work, he had worked on thousands of such cases involving dream interpretation.

He postulates that when someone awakes from the dream, what he or she can recall is the manifest part of the dream. This part of the dream is quite meaningless and of little value to a psychoanalyst, according to him. He adds that one begins to scratch the surface the real meaning of what the dream are revealed. He suggested that this meaning was normally hidden because of the restrictions society places on individuals. In most cases, this deeper meaning tended to have a sexual undertone. The mind thus uses symbolism to hide the real meaning of the dream. This was out of a desire by the mind to protect its moral integrity.

In order to interpret dreams, Freud would utilize a method he termed as free association. He would request the dreamer to relive his dream. After that, the dreamer would be requested to associate various objects with realities of the real world. By so doing, the psychoanalyst could then examine any events in the dreamer's life and draw up a conclusion. He argues that a dream is very important to the continued sane existence of an individual. For instance, instead of one acting out on incestuous desires, the individual can have their odd sexual cravings fulfilled in the dream world and thus they can function normally in society. Further, a dream can help one deal with the loss of a loved, according to Freud. In addition to helping an individual deal with loss, dreams help lower aggression in society. He goes on to explain that an individual who has desire to commit revenge may find fulfillment in a dream. Thus contributing to the peaceful existence of society.

His work, at one point led him to believe that this was one of humanities three humiliations. He noted that the belief long held of humans being in total control of our actions had ow been debunked. This idea brought him into disrepute especially in the United States. The problem with Freud's theory was that there was no way of proving if a treatment had worked. Later studies in the nineteenth century even refuted the idea of dreams being linked to desire. As a result, his work became less and less appealing over time. However, recent research has revived the interest in the link between desire and dreams. For instance, researchers have noted that areas of the mind charged with desire seem overly active during sleep. This conclusion was arrived at by using an MRI scan on a sleeping person. This research does appear to validate Freud's work, albeit cautiously, so many years after it was refuted as pseudoscience.

It is important to note that this theory coincides with a deeply religious time in history. At the time, the common belief was that God or other spiritual beings inspired all dreams. As a result, his work was not given the opportunity to grow and be fully investigated. Since his time, many others have tried to come up with their own theories as to how dreams work. All of them wholly or partially based upon Freud's original work. However, there is no denying that Freud's revelation of the unconscious mind had a great influence on humanity.

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The Ego and the ID is one of Freud's most insightful work into the subconscious. Although Freud did not invent the idea of the subconscious, he did play a major role in popularizing it. It was an important breakthrough in treating mental conditions. Before he began to advance his theories, it was wrongly believed that all mental problems originated from physiological processes. In this book, Freud suggests the actions of man are because of two other parts of his mind. Freud suggested that these parts were the superego and the id. He also suggested that the largest part of man's mind was the id. It was his belief that most mental illness could be treated by bringing the id to the surface through psychoanalysis.

According to Freud, the id had the greatest influence on our lives, although we were unaware of it. Freud suggested that this part of our mind was the motivation for most of our sexual desires and all other activities that we passionately pursued. He further stated that this drive for our lives mainly remained hidden because we were too ashamed to face them. As a result, our minds developed a mechanism to keep them buried deep in our subconscious.

Freud suggested that the id was driven purely by needs and wants. For instance, when a child was born they tended to engage in fits of crying when they needed something. Freud suggested this was the id in its raw form without any inhibitions. The reason given was that the newborn baby had no understanding of what their body wanted, yet their brain still expressed a need. However, over the course of the child's life, they would become conscious. As a result, throughout one's life, they develop a link to the physical world, primarily designed to feed the desires and needs of the id.

However, throughout the ego's interactions with the physical world, it comes upon various hurdles as it tries to please the id. These hurdles may be in form of punishment, rewards, societal admonishment and others. As a result, a child develops a sense of fear and guilt. All these punishments, fear and guilt are recorded in a person's recent memory. However, they are suppressed from conscious thought and only emerge due to certain triggers. This part of the brain where these memories were stored, Freud referred to as the superego. The superego can be divided further into two; the first part was named the conscience, which develops because of various punishments and suggestions of consequences throughout the individual's life. The other part is called the ego ideal. This part of a person's brain originates from positive reinforcement throughout the child's life. In essence, the superego represents a way that society conditions one to fulfill their desires. However, at times the desires of the id come into conflict with what the superego wants. As a result, this leads to deviant behavior seen in human beings.

Freud further suggested that in the human mind there existed two opposing and equal forces. He named these forces the forces of life and death. Freud suggests the Eros or the force of love was responsible for life. It was his belief that this was the primary force for sex and thus procreation. Besides that, the life force leads human beings to desire to find food and shelter and comfort for their body, thus it is the force to live. However, Freud noted that all life ended in death. Consequently, he began to believe that there must exist another force, which led the human being to want to die. This force he named Thanatos'. He associated this was with aggressive tendencies in human beings, which led them to have a desire to destroy all life on earth.

Freud discussed that cruelty and aggression to other life on earth was a projection of this death force. Freud also suggested that sometimes, this force was directed inwards. For instance, the desire of human beings to engage in drug abuse, despite the knowledge of the deadly consequences they pose. Another example Freud gave is the presence of suicidal thoughts in a sizeable amount of the human population.

In this book, Freud also explains the three types of anxiety. The first type of anxiety is fear. This type of fear comes because of the body's desire for self-preservation. For instance, if someone were to point a gun at you, the first feeling one experiences is fear. It is simply a desire by the body to save itself. The second type of anxiety according to Freud is moral anxiety'. Freud explains this type of anxiety originates form the superego. In other words, this type of anxiety is simply a fear of punishment. It is also driven by guilt. The third type of fear, which requires psychoanalytical treatment, is neurotic. This type of anxiety originates from the id; it can be described as a feeling of loss of control. As a result, it was a requirement that a psychiatrist bring the cause of the fear to the conscious in order to treat it.


In order to deal with anxiety, the mind has ways of dealing with theses tense situations. One of the most rudimentary ways is through denial. For instance, a student may decide not to pick their results knowing that they performed dismally. Another common form of defense is the mind's ability to repress bad occurrences. Another form of defense mechanisms that is of great significance is undoing. In this situation, a person comes up with a made up ritual to attempt to deal with a certain situation. It is quite clear that the human mind has a way of dealing with many situations. All these defense mechanism tend to shape how a person relates to society, according to Freud.

Freud's work was greatly flawed. However, his work does have a lot of influence on modern developments in psychology. Freud's groundbreaking into talking patients back to health cannot be underestimated. His theories helped to revolutionize the way people thought of the human mind. While some of his work has been rejected, it was his investigations that led to an immense intense in psychoanalytical treatment. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that his original work has benefited humanity greatly.

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Freud was quite interested in Jewish history. At his time, persecution and hatred for the Jewish people was quite common. Being a pioneer in the field of psychoanalysis, he set out to investigate the origins of the Jewish people. Among his most astonishing claims was that Moses was not of Jewish. For one, the name Moses is not of Jewish origin and can be traced back to ancient Egyptians. The book is an attempt to apply psychoanalysis to the field of history. An extension on his earlier works such as Totem and Taboo.

 In keeping with his suggestion about the primal father, Freud argues that a small band of individuals, which Moses led out of Egypt during a time of great civil war, conspired against him and eventually killed him.

In his book, Freud argues that the tribe of Israel from this original sin of the murder of the tribes founding father. However, when his followers murdered Moses, they were overcome by a deep sense of remorse and guilt. Later on, as this small band of individuals were wondering through the desserts, they came upon monotheistic tribe. They combined with this tribe but their collective memory of Moses never died. Consequently, the Jewish people invented the coming of a Messiah. According to Freud, the concept of a Messiah was nothing more than a desire for reconnecting with their ancient father figure "Moses". Freud argues that this feeling of overwhelming shame has been passed down in the Jew's racial memory for generations and has driven him to develop a strong conviction for religion.

To explain the Jewish story of the adoption of Moses, Freud draws on the concept of family romance. Freud argues that individuals have a primal desire to race their bloodline back to royalty. This is because it makes them feel good about themselves. According to Freud, Moses' real family was the royal family of Egypt. The band of individuals who Moses escaped with from Egypt created the story of the adoption of Moses. In addition, they also invented Moses' tribe of Levi. These fanciful tales were because of their deep desire to develop a deep connection with Moses' who they looked up to with ambivalence.


In the second section of the book, Freud set out to explain how the Jewish religion was developed. In his book, Freud explains that the Egyptian god Aton was in fact the original god of Moses. However, the god Aton was not wholly accepted by the polytheistic priests of ancient Egypt who had a deep connection to the people. The god Aton was created during the reign of the pharaoh named Akhenaton. His dream of creating a monotheistic god however crushed to the ground when he died. The polytheistic priests of the Amon order immediately reestablished themselves and the god Aton was lost to history. However, some in the royal family, which Moses came rom were not pleased with this. They attempted a rebellion but were ultimately defeated and hence they fled to the desert. Freud points to the practice of circumcising young children in Jewish culture, very little mention of life after death and the strict adherence to a single god as similarities between Jewish religion and that of Aton worshippers. After is attempts at power were thwarted by the priests, Moses became frustrated and led his band of loyal followers out in the desert where they could practice their religion in peace. However, it is important to note that this was a conjecture created by Freud and has no basis in real evidence.

Freud farther analyzes Jewish folklore to find truth for his conjecture. He had the advantage of having first-hand experience seeing as he was born Jewish. Freud concludes that this band of royal followers was first adherent to the rules of Moses' religion. However, at some time their beliefs from their polytheistic past came into conflict with the religion of Moses. Consequently, when Moses died, most of his religion was abandoned. They returned to their polytheistic and almost completely forgot about Moses and Aton. However, in their nomadic lifestyle, they came upon a people who had also escaped the civil unrest that had gripped ancient Egypt. However, this people practiced the worship of a mountain god who they called Yahweh. The newfound god was very demanding of the people of Israel in terms of ritual sacrifice. The people began to follow this god and even built places of worship, which they named temples in honor of Him. However, not all the religious practices of Moses' all-loving, all-powerful god were lost. For instance, the practice of circumcising young children was retained. They managed to spread this practice to their adopted tribe and adopted their host's name for god. Over time, the suppressed memory of Moses due to shame began to reemerge. In order to avoid dealing with the fact of the murder of their primal father, the Jewish people invented stories about Moses mysterious disappearance. Over time, the people integrated the stories of Moses to the newfound god Yahweh. As time progressed, combined with the psychology of family romance, Jews magnified the volcano into an all-powerful god and of course, they placed themselves at the center of his adoration.


Later in his work, Freud claims that the story of Jesus was another fanciful invention of the Jews. In his work, he claims that the nailing of Jesus to the cross was a way for humanity and Jews to try to deal with this sense of guilt. This guilt rose from the murder of Moses. Freud claims the original sin was actually the murder of the primal father. Freud further draws on his earlier work claiming that the Holy Communion was the totem feast described in his earlier work Totem and Taboo'.

Freud seems to have based most of his work on the premise of Judeo-Christian religion. However, there are many other religions in the world, which do not conform to Freud's theories. Nevertheless, Freud's work does provide for an interesting read. His work, especially concerning human sexuality, revenge and deep-seated guilt does tend to resonate with human beings, even if just at a basic level. However, his work on monotheism has generated little interest from the world's leading scholars. Perhaps there is a need to investigate Freud's work if humanity ever hopes to understand itself and religion; it has been the source of so much conflict and bloodletting the world over.

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Freud attempted to give a psychoanalysis into the minds of people and neurosis. In his book, Totem and Taboo, he proposes that all modern forms of socialization are shaped by the primitive culture of origin. In addition to that, he states that all behaviors of conformity spring from a common primitive form. Generally, a totem is a symbol that is common to a group of people. Typically, members who are of the same totem are prohibited from breeding. In this book, Freud argues that these simplistic societies would simply have had no way of knowing the physiological effects of incest. Instead, Freud argues that these primitive societies are driven by something else. Thus, Freud instigated a study into these groups and came up with conclusions. In the book, he also has something to say about how modern and monotheistic religions came into being. His theories have been heavily criticized, and have been a source of major controversies since they were first put forward. In this light, there is a need for closer examination.

First Chapter

The first chapter of this book concerns the incest taboos of primitive tribes. Specifically, Freud chose to use Aborigines of Australia for his study. He stated that he chose them because their culture was deeply ingrained in use of totems and were very primitive. In this chapter, Freud insinuates that totems only exist as a way to prevent incestuous relations. Freud notes that savage tribes took great care to avoid incestuous relations. In some cases, this behavior was so severe that it led to what he termed as avoidances'. What this meant is that communities took great care so that even walking down the same path was prohibited. In some instances, either the man or woman would have to hide if they encountered someone of the opposite sex on a path. For his explanation, Freud suggests that repression of sexual desire is the cause of such 'avoidances'. However, modern societies have advanced and no longer have to rely on avoidances. However, Freud suggests that even advanced societies must have at one time passed through this stage. Freud argues that neurotic patients have regressed. In essence, they are unable to repress the primitive incestuous feelings.

Second Chapter

This chapter deals with the topic of emotional ambivalence and taboo practices. In this chapter, Freud explains taboo as something, which is prevented by society without reason. He argues that a taboo does not spontaneously exist. At one point, the taboo had meaning but the meaning has since been lost to time. A taboo is seen as something dangerous and having dire consequences, yet further investigation reveals no one knows why. It has been so for such a long time that its original significance is no longer traceable. Since incest and the killing of a totem animal are most prominent taboos, Freud argues at one time, they were the most heinous acts in that clan. In essence, Freud argues that the original lesser males may have killed the father and taken over his females. As a result, he argues this repressed guilt leads them to prohibit these two activities. In order to ensure no one breaks these rules, sever punishment, even death is handed out communally to anyone who violates the taboo.

Third Chapter

This chapter deals with animism and omnipotence. Essentially, this chapter tries to explain the origin of religions. Freud postulates that primitive societies view every object in the universe as possessing a soul. Darwin suggests that these primitive tribes intermingle dreams with the physical world. In essence, they try to explain the existence of the world and how their influence on it. Freud argues that this primitive feeling of human being having control over everything is what leads to narcissism. Primitive tribes believe that whatever they do has a great impact on other objects in the universe. Freud also argues that religion is a form of repressed incest. He postulates the idea that a god stands in place of one's parents and become an object of expressing repressed sexual desires. Freud argues that animism is the first stage of the mental evolution of man. According to Freud, religion and finally science are the second and last stages of man's evolution. Freud argues that religion leads to a lot intolerance and oppression. This is because it is a result of repressed sexual desires. In Freud's view, scientific discovery could put an end to most oppression and conflict in the human race.

Chapter Four

This chapter is concerned with explaining the origin of totems. Freud notes that his studies indicate that exogamy is not innate in man. Primal man at his core has a desire for sexual relations with close family members. However, through social conditioning, it becomes something of a norm. This last chapter is based on the Oedipus complex, a theory that was first proposed by Sigmund Freud. In this theory, Freud talks about a 'primal horde'. This is thought to be one of the earliest attempts by man to live in organized society. In this society, a single male would own all the females, like is seen in gorillas' societies. The rest of the males remain exogamous by default. However, at one point they may have killed their father and taken over his females. However, this leads to feelings of guilt, which are displaced to a totem animal or plant. Thus, killing a totem creature is prohibited except for various ceremonies. In essence, what happens is that these societies feel ambivalent towards their original father figure. By slaughtering the ritual totem animal in groups, they are attempting to console each other by sharing in each other's guilt.

Conclusion

In the last chapter, Freud argues that all cultures, no matter how advanced originate from the Oedipus complex. He also argues it is the basis for all religion. Although he never saw it happen, he predicted that an end to religion would also see an end to all forms of conflict. Although much progress has been made in various advanced societies around the world, there still exist many hurdles in seeing his vision become a reality.

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Civilization and Its Discontent was Freud's last major work. It also happened to be the most influential of his works. In this work, Freud expounds on his earlier work on the sense of guilt of the superego. He postulates that this sense of guilt is the source of all human civilization. He claims that human beings have a natural desire to belong to a group. For instance, Freud claims that a young child does not understand the difference between themselves and the society. However, this instinct disappears over the development of the person. It does not disappear completely and reappears later in the life of an individual. This natural instinct to belong to a group, Freud argues, is the cause of civilization.

The general nature of Freud's work on civilization is riddled with pessimism. The first chapter of Freud's book begins with a criticism of religion. Freud views religion as a way in which human being deal with psychological issues that constantly face them. In the book, Freud views civilization as emerging form the destructive and constructive nature of man. Two opposing forces that Freud names Eros and Thanatos take center stage in this book. In the book, Freud proposes that civilization is a way for individual human beings to deal with his violent and destructive nature.

Freud argues that civilization emanates from the superego. He argues that man's drive to be civilized comes from the superego that is driven by guilt and remorse. Consequently, Freud argues civilization emerges from this delicate balance to fulfill individual desire and the sanctions from the superego. Freud is also very critical of religion in this work. He argues that at childhood, a person has a strong urge for protection from the father. Consequently, Freud argues that religion comes from this primal desire for protection by a father. Consequently, Freud argues that religion emanates from this primal desire in order to deal with the harsh realities of the external world.

In this book, Freud also looks into the conflicting nature of civilized man. Freud views civilization as a way which modern man deals with the extremities of realities. Despite this fact, civilization brings man a lot of grief. Consequently, Freud argues that the reason for most mental illness is man's inability to deal with the realities of civilized society. This is because, for some, dealing with the restrictions that society places on their primal nature becomes too much. Essentially, Freud argues that civilization emanates from a desire by man for achieving individualistic goals.

In his book, Freud argues that civilization is driven by aggression. Furthermore, he explains that civilization does not exist because of the love man has for fellow men. Rather, it is driven by the desire to oppose this primal aggressive nature of man. Freud's argues that man's destructive drive is especially strong, this theory gained traction due to the advent of the First World War. Freud argues that for man to share in the joys of civilization, feelings of aggression are turned towards oneself. This results into the development of the superego. Consequently, the superego allows the individual to share in society. However, these feelings may be turned outwards, which results in war.

In his book, Freud argues that guilt and shame are some of the primary drivers for man to inhibit his primal urges. In addition to that, he firmly states that guilt is derived from the individuals desire to fulfill these urges. Thus the superego of an individual, through conditioning in the earlier stages of life cause an individual to self-sanction. To explain the development of the conscience as abase for civilization. Freud draws on some of his earlier work. Freud argues guilt, and hence the conscience derives from the primal man's murder of the original father figure.

In his earlier work, Freud argued that primal man murdered killed his father in order to fulfill his sexual desires with females of his tribe. He viewed his father as an obstacle to fulfilling this desire. However, the overwhelming guilt experienced afterwards led primal man to develop guilt, which led to development of civilization. Freud argues that this is the premise of modern civilization. The desire not to repeat the original crime of hostility towards the father is the driving force behind civilization. Consequently, the opposing force of guilt is the only way civilized man can keep their death instinct in check.


In his work, Freud argues that there is only one way for modern man to stay civilized. The only way is to ensure a balanced between man's individualistic need and those of society. Consequently, it is necessary for man to forego some of his personal pleasure in order to share in the joys of civilized society. These joys include health and security. Besides that, it is quite clear that the horrors of the First World War had a great influence on Freud.

In the book, Freud concedes that human life is hard. Consequently, human beings try to look for solace in destructive behaviors such as drug abuse. It is quite clear that the advantages of modern civilization far surpass the pleasures of uncivilized man. Even today, the freedoms that primitive societies are dampened by the struggles they have to face.

The book is one of Freud's most widely led work. Although it contains many flaws, many of which have been disapproved, it does hold some insight for human civilization. It is also of great significance to note that Freud's work was written during one of humanities lowest point. The First World War was a sad state of affairs for human civilization. In essence, Freud viewed war as a neurosis. This can explain why he was so critical of humanity. For one, the war forced him to move from his native country. Human beings may not be perfect; however, since the time of Freud, they have proven that civilization is capable of good. The modern technological advances that human societies have managed to make since the century when Freud lived are a testament to this.

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Sigmund Freud's Famous Couch.

Madame Benvenisti, one of Freud's patients, sent the psychoanalyst a couch as a way of expressing her gratitude. This couch featured a Persian throw rug where patients lie down while under hypnosis and in a trance state.

The iconic image of a patient reclining on a couch while sharing their thoughts and feelings with a psychoanalyst has become synonymous with Freudian psychoanalysis. Freud pioneered the use of the couch in his therapy sessions to encourage patients to relax and freely associate their thoughts without the distraction of face-to-face interaction.

He had a serious addiction to cigar that resulted to oral cancer.

For a number of years, Freud struggled with addiction to cigar. He was a heavy smoker, and this was the primary contributor of his battle with a serious illness. During his final years, he was diagnosed with oral cancer, which had gone to the point that it was no longer operable. After constant excruciating pains brought about by this disease, Freud requested his doctor to give him fatal doses of morphine to end his struggle. Three separate doses of this drug was administered on Freud, which resulted to his death on September 23, 1939.

The Oedipus Complex and His Own Family.

One of Freud's most famous concepts is the Oedipus complex, which explores a child's feelings of desire for his mother and rivalry with his father. Interestingly, Freud acknowledged that his own family dynamics played a role in shaping this theory. Freud had six children, and his relationship with his wife, Martha, as well as his observations of his own family, influenced his understanding of the complex interplay of familial relationships.

Freud decided to become a doctor for practical reasons.

Freud became engaged to Martha Bernays when he was 26 years old. However, he was struggling financially during that time since his job at a science lab did not suffice in supporting his family. As a result, he decided to abandon his career as a scientist and pursued a job as a medical doctor. He sacrificed the painful experience of being apart from Martha temporarily, so he could obtain professional training in medicine that equipped him with credentials to become a doctor.

Freud was addicted to cocaine.

Earlier in the 20th century, cocaine's harmful effects were still undiscovered. In fact, it was used as a euphoric and analgesic, and it was often found in throat lozenges and soda pop. Freud was particularly interested in cocaine's ability to ease depression, and he even advocated the use of this drug for numerous purposes. Unfortunately, his career as a doctor suffered after cocaine's harmful effects and addictive properties were revealed.

Freud considered himself as the favorite child of his mother.

Freud's mother fondly called him "golden Siggie", which made him feel his mother's greater love for him, as compared to to the affection his siblings got. According to him, this special favor he received from his mother gave rise to his optimism and self-reliance.

During the last 16 years of Freud's life, he had 33 more surgeries due to cancer.

Freud thought of cigar smoking as a habit that enhanced his creative skills. Unfortunately, this resulted to the formation of a cancerous tumor in his mouth, which required a removal of a huge portion of his jaw. There were also 33 additional surgeries that took place during Freud's final years, yet he never stopped smoking.

Cocaine Advocate.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Freud was an enthusiastic advocate for the use of cocaine. He believed that the substance could be a panacea for various ailments, including depression and anxiety. Freud even wrote a positive essay titled "On Coca," where he praised the therapeutic benefits of cocaine. However, as the negative effects of the drug became apparent, Freud distanced himself from his earlier endorsement.

Freud studied the sexual organs of eels.

When Freud was at the University of Vienna, he had to take up zoology as a part of his course. He dissected eels to find the gonads of the males, but his efforts were to no avail. This part of the research study was during his trip to Trieste.

His written work, "The Interpretation of Dreams" was hardly a success during the initial publication.

Although Freud thought of his written work as quite significant, a total of 351 copies were sold within the first 6 years. It was first published in 1899, and its second edition was only released in 1909.

Freud's death may have been a physician-assisted suicide.

By the summer of 1939, Freud was frail and suffering intense pain from terminal, inoperable mouth cancer. On September 21, 1939, Freud grasped the hand of his friend and doctor, Max Schur, and reminded him of his earlier pledge not to "torment me unnecessarily." He added, "Now it is nothing but torture and makes no sense." After receiving the permission of Freud's daughter, Anna, Schur injected the first of three heavy morphine doses. Freud slipped into a coma and never awoke.

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On Aphasia is the first published work by Freud. In this little known monograph Freud challenges the leading belief back then that aphasia could be localized in certain areas of the mind. He proposed that theories in his time linking aphasia to neuroscience were utterly irrelevant. It helped to lay important groundwork for later theories, which he would later develop. The ideas, which he came upon during his studies on aphasia, lay the fundamental basis for the development of psychoanalysis. This tiny book is an important resource in filling in the gaps for a clear understanding of his later works. The work reveals that he had developed a global network of correspondence with scientists from various disciplines on the human mind. This interlinked network helped him to come across various cases from patients throughout the world. Their peculiar conditions were fundamental in helping Freud denounce the existing theories of the time.

In the work, he suggests notions, which have yet to be investigated by cognitive science, neuroscience and other disciplines, which deal with human speech. In the work, he suggests that speech is spontaneous in nature; he postulates that it emanates from an individual's desire to engage in speech. Freud made an amazing discovery, for his time, that any speech difficulties an individual had would disappear almost instantaneously the patient began to talk about the event. In this case, the event was the incident, which led to disorder in speech.

He was especially critical of earlier theories on aphasia. These theories were deduced from the loss of function after severe head injuries. The theories wrongly concluded that each section of the brain was only capable of conducting a certain specific function. In addition, theories prior to his work concluded that each of these parts worked independently of each other. Consequently, Freud strived to develop a new structure on how language and indeed, the entire body mind concept worked.

Freud suggested that earlier theories suggesting that centers in the mind contained specific impressions of the workings of the body were wrong. He argues that the entire proposition was arbitrary; this is because this was not always the case. In essence, he argues that the researchers came to these conclusions wrongly and that their theories did not always hold true when tested.


He also seeks to refute the concept of representation. He criticized the idea of gaps in the mind proposed by other theories. Firstly, he discusses how the conclusion as to the existence of this mind gaps was arrived upon. Earlier theories had proposed that imagers would then be stored in these regions. Theories proposed earlier tended to suggest that if an area was found to have many overlapping lesions were inferred to be the centers of language. This was inferred to mean that these areas were very critical for the normal function of a language. Consequently, all other areas would be considered to have on critical function. Freud tears apart this proposition by suggesting that the reason other areas which remained intact because they had higher resistance. In addition, he also stated that in fact that a lesion in one part of cortical region might also cause change in another part or effectively, how the entire cortical region operates. Therefore, he concludes that just the mere fact that injury in one area does not cause aphasia cannot be used as definitive proof.

In addition, Freud presented a second argument against these original theories on language. The general idea back then was that learning a new language tended to involve these unoccupied regions becoming occupied. In order to demonstrate the flawed nature of this concept, he discusses the effects of lesions on the brain. He suggested that if this were true, a lesion in the language center would leave the other language intact. However, it had been observed numerous times that this was not true. Earlier theories had compared these gaps to people coming to occupy an unoccupied area outside a city. A lesion in the language centers tended to produce aphasia symptoms without differentiating the type of language spoken. In fact, he observes that in case of lesion, the acquired language tended to be lost more easily. However, the only time the original language was affected was if the person had used the acquired language more prominently than the original language.

From these two arguments, Freud concludes that the theory of unoccupied regions is flawed. Instead, he proposes that language learning seems to occur in one particular region of the mind. Hence, the existence of unoccupied gaps in the cortical regions can be ruled out. Thus, he proposes that there is only a single language center to be located in the left hemisphere. Thus, he concluded that unique processes, which occurred in this region, were the cause of aphasic symptoms. Furthermore, he noted that injury in this area did not tend to cause one particular type of aphasia.


Freud instead proposes an alternative to these theories. However, he partly accepts the theories proposed before on the localization of brain functions. He rejects the idea that there is a specific center for each language. Thus, he suggests that it is possible for the brain to have a region where certain, related actions are handled in the brain. Thus, he says that the brain does have general regions for generally similar functions. However, there does not exist specific areas for specific languages.

Undoubtedly, one of Freud's most complex works, this book continues to play an important role in psychoanalysis. In addition, the work includes a re classification of the types of aphasia. The work he began into the studies of language must have had a huge impact into later studies about the unconscious mind. His work also helped to demonstrate that individuals were unique, thus there was need to develop unique treatments for each individual. However, his work did help to do away with popular concepts of the day. His contribution had a great influence on changing the approach, which doctors applied when treating this fact. Despite this fact, it remains one of his most unappreciated works.

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The book Psychopathology of Everyday Life by Sigmund Freud was first published in 1901. A.A Brill did its translation into English in the year 1914. It is without a doubt one of Freud's most widely discussed and influential works. The work is not as technical as Freud's other works and draws on everyday experiences. In the book, he tries to give a concise explanation behind everyday actions. These include such things as forgetting a person's name, common slips of the tongue and others.

This work by Sigmund was a further advancement into works he had already published. Essentially, he was furthering the idea of the subconscious. He believed that dreams were part of the subconscious. Freud suggests that no matter how far out a dream may seem, it is related to some aspect of everyday life. Freud came to this conclusion after careful analysis of mental patients suffering hysteria and other related illnesses. He suggested that subtle things as forgetting dates of important occasions and meaningless accident were all due to this subconscious. In short, Freud suggested that there was meaning behind even the most meaningless human actions. He stated that he believed that all random acts of a person were preconceived in the subconscious without a person's awareness.

Freud postulated that the main driving force of the subconscious developed over many years. He believed that society and the moral education of an individual were key parts of the subconscious. However, a person can consciously suppress these states. This suppression is not always successful, according to Freud. Every once in a while, the suppressed subconscious will find a way out. The resultant act is thus in fact an interference by the subconscious on the conscious. For instance, Freud suggests that when one forgets a name, it is not merely a random act. In fact, it is because of a conflict in the mind between the conscious and subconscious. The name, which is pronounced in place of the original name, is thus a compromise made by these two conflict states.


In his book, Freud puts forth many such examples, giving a detailed analysis in each case. He first suggests a random, everyday act and then gives a detailed interpretation of the same. All Freud explanations follow a basic three-step pattern; in the first step, there is an unknown urge for an individual to forget a name. In the second step, suppression by the subconscious takes place. Lastly, Freud demonstrates the relationship that exists between the forgotten name or other action and the individuals past experience. In his book, Freud shows an undeniable influence that the subconscious has on our lives. Freud then suggests that all human activity is controlled. For instance, he suggests that it is impossible for someone to mention a random name or number without being driven by the subconscious. Fred thus suggests that dreams and everyday life are quite alike.

In that same manner, Freud suggests that the tendency to forget important events is due to subconscious suppression. Freud suggests that there is universally common for individuals to forget traumatizing experiences. For his explanation, he gives a personal experience. He tells of a story where he was unable to recall a former patient despite her name appearing in his books of accounts. It was only after much labored thought that he finally remembered who she was. However, the child had died due to a misdiagnosis of the real cause of her symptoms. What was thought to have be a mental illness was in fact the physical manifestation on of a deadly illness. Naturally, this incident must have deeply troubling for him. He suggests that his subconscious thus reacted by suppressing any memory of the incident from his conscious mind.

Freud mostly applied his research in treating mental patients. Thus, he suggested that psychosis were just exaggerated manifestations of the subconscious. Consequently, he suggested that the difference between the normal and mentally ill was no clearly discernible. Instead, he suggested it was a gradual process where the subconscious would gain too much control over the conscious.

More than one hundred years after it was published, Freud's work has continued to generate much controversy. Most criticism directed towards the work is due to the use of anecdotal evidence. Critics argue that the work was not based on any scientific method. Instead, Freud made mere observations and used his own earlier works as evidence. This book however contains many flaws. Thus, it is not recommended for patients who may suffer from mental problems. Most of the conclusions are clearly erroneous. It is also of interest to note that the book is one of Freud's works that is the least sexualized.

Despite much criticism of the book, Sigmund Freud greatly contributed to development of psychoanalysis. His techniques, though rudimentary at the time of conception helped to redefine psychoanalysis. Throughout his life, Freud helped to develop the concept of the subconscious mind. He suggested that the mind was like an iceberg, the conscious part of the mind being the tip of the iceberg. However, what lies underneath has the greatest influence on our lives. Freud called this hidden part of our minds the subconscious.

Despite the fact that most of his early works have been proven wrong, he did still make an important contribution to psychology. His contributions include areas such as the early onset of adult personality during formative years, the significance of ambivalent tendencies, the different stages in development of the mind, and most significantly the discovery of the subconscious mind. It is quite clear that his works will continue to generate much interest in the years to come. Modern scientific advances for instance, suggest a completely different source of speech from what Freud Suggested. Studies have shown that simple acts such as forgetting words may have nothing to do with repressed memories. However, Freud demonstrated is that there is a way to cure mental problems such as hysteria. By helping patients gain a deeper understanding of themselves, they can effectively rid of themselves of any illness.

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Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious is one of Sigmund Freud's less technical work. It is quite easy to understand for the common reader and does not delve too deeply into treating mental illness. This book is a bit different from his other works. This is because its focus is primarily on how societies work and the role jokes play. In this work, Freud gives detailed accounts of what he perceives to be different techniques used in creating jokes. He postulates that joking is a form of catharsis for repressed hostilities. He also claims that we can tell a lot about a society from the types of jokes they tell. In this work, Freud expresses strong belief that the same processes that relate to the creation of dreams in the unconscious mind are also at play when making jokes. The book is easily one of Freud's most easily understood work on his brief detour on social anthropology.

In the first few pages of this work, Freud examines the various preexisting theories on this topic. For instance, he examines the work of Kuno Fischer who viewed jokes as originating from man's playful nature. In addition, he looks in the work of an author who viewed jokes as being a form of metaphor. He also examines the works of various authors who talk about the brevity of jokes. These authors suggest that jokes are used to bring into the open, things that might otherwise be considered taboo in a particular society. In these first pages, Freud attempts a classification of jokes. For instance, Freud examines the concept of condensation. This technique, according to Freud occurs when one creates a joke out of two words. For instance, Freud gives an example of a joke he comes upon in his literature review. In the book, a character claims to be known famillionairely, by a rich Baron. This joke is created by combining the term millionaire and familiar. However, Freud notes that there are many other techniques, which a person may use to create a joke. In his work, Freud notes that most jokes tend to be short. In other words, there is great tendency towards economy when people try to create jokes.

For the explanation as to why people, find jokes funny, Freud views this as some sort of release. He postulates that people tend to laugh because they want to get rid of pent up energy. Freud postulates that this energy results from repression. It is his assertion that all aspects of the joke including the laughter are a catharsis for stored up sexual and hostile energy. However, this theory is quite faulty. For instance, Freud does not give an explanation as to how exactly this energy is stored up. In essence, although we do know that people have a way of finding release for repressed energy, there is no detail of exactly how emotional energy is released.


Later on in the book, Freud tries to explain how exactly a person is able to derive pleasure from a joke. He suggests that the mind through a joke is able to find work around for nasty, repressed emotions. These emotions could not otherwise be expressed without some sort of punishment. For instance, aggression and general hostilities about an ethnicity in a society can be freely expressed through the joke. In addition, Freud suggests that recognition, appreciation, and the play pleasures could be other sources of pleasure in the joke. In addition, Freud points out jokes play an important part in creating cohesion in society. He notes this may be the main reason that most people tend to tell jokes in groups. He suggests that a joke is society's way of dealing with societal aggression. Consequently, it is the minds unconscious way of diffusing tension in society to ensure its own survival.

Towards the end of his book, Freud delves more deeply into the theory of how jokes work. For his explanation, Freud falls back on his work on the subconscious mind's influence on dreams of people. He explains that dreams are nothing more than an expression of unfulfilled desires. By experiencing dreams, the subconscious helps the conscious mind to deal with repressed desires. In his work with mental patients, Freud observes he can find the source of a neurosis by examining a patient's dreams. Consequently, Freud notes that just like dream, which seem to come from nowhere, jokes too originate in the subconscious. He claims it is an avenue the human mind uses to release pent up energy. However, in this case, the source of the energy is from complex society wide repressions. That is why most jokes appear to have a societal origin. Towards the end of the book, Freud gives a detailed analysis of some of the themes used in creating jokes. For instance, he talks about caricatures.

Freud's work is essentially a bridge between the earlier theories on how jokes originate. He successfully managed to link these theories and jokes and the theory of a catharsis. Before his work, nobody else had attempted to give such a detailed explanation on this relationship.

The theories contained in this book have yet to be proved or disproved. This is unlike much of his earlier work on sexual drive in man. Nevertheless, the book has received a lot of criticism. However, most of those who criticize his work only examine the last chapter of the work. In this section Freud gives a detailed theory on how jokes work. However, his first chapter of the book is an examination of work from scholars who had dealt with the topic before him. As a result, before one criticizes Freud's work, it important for one to examine it adequately. For instance, he proposes that a joke is one way of ensuring cohesion in society. To some extent, this is true. For instance, roasts held by various societies are used to express pent up emotions. As a result, the complexities of a society are dealt with in a fun way. In addition, although everyone gets to release his or her anger, no one is injured.

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Leonardo da Vinci and A Memory of His Childhood  is a 1910 essay by Sigmund Freud about the childhood of Leonardo da Vinci. It consists of a psychoanalytic study of Leonardo's life based on his paintings.

Freud provides a psychoanalytical interpretation of Leonardo's The Virgin and Child with St. Anne. According to Oskar Pfister, the Virgin's garment reveals a vulture when viewed sideways. Freud accepted this interpretation (in spite of the outlines resembling rather a duck than a vulture) as a supportive interpretation of his view of a "passive homosexual" childhood fantasy Leonardo wrote about in the Codex Atlanticus. Here, Leonardo recounts being attacked as an infant in his crib by the tail of a vulture. Freud translated the passage thus:



According to Freud, this fantasy was based on the memory of sorrying his mother's nipple. He backed up his claim with the fact that Egyptian hieroglyphs represent the mother as a vulture, because the Egyptians believed that there are no male vultures and that the females of the species are impregnated by the wind.

Unfortunately, the translation "Geier" (vulture), which Maria Herzfeld had used for "nibio" in 1904 in the first edition of her book Leonardo da Vinci, der Denker, Forscher und Poet, was not exactly the kite Leonardo da Vinci had meant: a small hawk-like bird of prey, common in the Vinci area, which is occasionally a scavenger. This disappointed Freud because, as he confessed to Lou Andreas-Salome in a letter of 9 February 1919, he regarded the Leonardo essay as "the only beautiful thing I have ever written". Some Freudian scholars have, however, made attempts to repair the theory by incorporating the kite.

Another theory proposed by Freud attempts to explain Leonardo's fondness of depicting the Virgin Mary with St. Anne. Leonardo, who was illegitimate, was raised by his blood mother initially before being "adopted" by the wife of his father Ser Piero. The idea of depicting the Mother of God with her own mother was therefore particularly close to Leonardo's heart, because he, in a sense, had 'two mothers' himself. It is worth noting that in both versions of the composition (the Louvre painting and the London cartoon) it is hard to discern whether St. Anne is a full generation older than Mary.

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On Narcissism, 1914 was a significant point in the development of Freud's theories. The work was produced after work on his earlier theories on dreams and the unconscious mind. It also comes immediately he began to explore the various aspects of the unconscious mind such as the 'id'. However, Freud does not mention the 'id' in this work. Instead, he gives suggestions on the existence of these various parts of the mind. In addition, Freud begins to talk about the mind's self-control mechanisms, which he refers to as the 'ego-ideal'. However, he does not directly mention the superego, which would be the basis of his later works. It is important to note that it is one of his most technical works. In this work, Freud uses many clinical terms, which might not be easy for the common reader to understand.

In the work, Freud introduces the concept of 'narcissism'. He defines it as adoration one accords themselves in light of them being an object of sexual desire. He views narcissism as some sort of neurosis. However, he also postulates that all humans have some level of narcissism throughout their development. In his work, Freud differentiates between two types of narcissism, primary and secondary narcissism. Primary narcissism preexists in all human beings; this type of energy is present from birth. He postulates this is the type of narcissism, which causes individuals their affection towards an object. For instance, when a mother expresses unadulterated love for her child it is a result of this primary narcissism. In addition, he speculates this is the same type of energy evident in young kids. At this point in their life, kids will often believe themselves to be super beings capable of performing amazing feats just by their words.

However, at some point in their life, this primary narcissism is directed outwards to an object. This is because it causes too much conflict within the individual. Freud speculates that secondary narcissism develops when individuals turn this object affection back on themselves. This is after the affection had already been projected outwards to other objects besides themselves. The result is that an individual becomes cut off from society and disinterested in others. Freud postulates that such an individual will have low self-esteem. This is due to their inability to express love to others and have it expressed back to them. In addition, such a person is full of shame, guilt and often very defensive. This is because narcissism causes an individual to seek self-preservation.


In his work, Freud speculates that narcissism from to distinct sources. In the first place, the person is driven by a need to self-preserve; secondly, the individual is driven by the sex drive, essentially the need to procreate. During childhood, these two drives are usually the same and no differentiation can be made. In essence, the more affection 'libido' is projected to others 'object-libido', the less energy there exists for self-love 'ego-libido'. In essence, Freud postulates object libido emanates from a need to ensure the survival of the species. Consequently, Freud argues that the concept of love is for ensuring continuation of the species. He further argues that for the individual and the species to survive, there is a need for maintaining a delicate balance between these two libidos. For instance, if an individual want to eat, he must have some ego-libido, however if he want the species to survive, he must have object-libido. An imbalance occurs when too much energy is directed inwards to the individual. The result is that the personality of the person becomes infected and they can no longer function properly in society.

In later chapters of his work, Freud seeks to explain the cause of homosexuality. According to Freud, the mother-child relationship, the child directs their outward affection towards the mother. However, homosexuals do not learn to project their object-libido correctly, according to Freud, these individuals chose a different object of their choice. Instead, they tend to choose a different object on which to project their affection. According to Freud, this is narcissism in its purest form. In addition, Freud had a few choice words for the behavior of beautiful women. He postulated that most of these beautiful females were narcissists interested in self-adoration. He postulated they tended to look for someone who could develop an admiration for them in the same obsessive way they loved themselves. Consequently, such women were found to be highly attractive to men primarily due to their indifference of what other though of them.

Freud postulates that children expressed their love for children as a way of fulfilling their own narcissistic desires. This primary narcissism reemerges after the child's birth. Freud later explores the ego ideal. In this work, he explains that as a person develops, they develop a sort of self-censorship. In paranoid individuals, the ego ideal is too strong and uncontrolled, which causes an individual to develop of being monitored by unseen persons. Freud also explains, the ego ideal could be the cause of the voice reported in mental patients, which is often said to be critical of the individual.


Consequently, self-esteem is weighed against the satisfaction of this ego ideal. How much self-esteem one has then depends on how much affection and love they are able to derive form the object of their desire. If object-libido is projected outwards without reciprocity, it can lead to low self-esteem.

Freud's work, particularly touching on homosexuality, has elicited much criticism over the years. However, even his critics still find inspiration when they trying to develop their own psychoanalytical theories. His work is still relevant today, for instance, the current societies are arguably some of the most narcissistic in the history. The phenomenon where young and old people seem to have developed lack of empathy for each other is subject of interest for many scholars. However, Freud quite complex work may not provide all the answers to this phenomenon. However, it does raise interesting issues on the role of family in the development of individuals into caring members of a society.